The Suez War

Introduction

The Suez War occurred in Egypt towards the end of 1956, with the country being invaded by Israel, France, and the United Kingdom. This struggle was also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression. According to Crowcroft (2016), this crisis was the result of the conflict of interests between the Egyptian Pan-Arabism and British imperialism. In particular, the war erupted due to different perceptions of the role of the Middle East in global politics. The nationalization of the Suez Canal by Gamal Abdel Nasser was a trigger for the Suez Crisis. Consequently, 29^th October of that year marked the onset of the war where armed forces from Israel entered Egypt (Dieti, 2008). In this regard, an analysis of the reasons that led to the Suez War fosters an understanding of the principles behind the crisis during that period.

Reasons that Led to the Suez War in 1956

The breakout of the war in the North African country was ascribed to various factors that can be classified as internal or external with regard to the country’s position in the war. These reasons include nationalism, the political relationship between the USSR and Egypt, President Nasser’s influence in the Middle East, the Baghdad Pact, the Aswan High Dam project, imposition of the Martial Law in the Suez Canal region, potential decline in oil supply to the European countries, the Arab-Israeli rivalry, and the Palestinian refugee crisis, among others. The section below describes these causes of the Suez Crisis in detail.

Nationalism in Egypt

The surge of nationalism in Egypt was a major contributing factor that led to the Suez War in 1956. The Wafd party led by Nahas Pasha denounced the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty in 1951. The treaty stipulated that the UK was required to remove its forces from Egypt, apart from those keeping guard at the Suez Canal (Burchell, 2016). Due to nationalism, this treaty was revoked and the Egyptians demanded that all troops from the UK be removed from the Suez Base. Subsequent attacks on the British troops compelled them to disarm the Egyptian paramilitary police force that was responsible for organizing these attacks. Riots ensued in the nation’s capital, prompting the dismissal of Nahas by King Farouk, who was consequently overthrown by General Neguib. According to Moeller (2015), negotiations between the British and Neguib’s governments geared toward maintaining control over Egypt were futile. Nevertheless, when Abdel Nasser took over from Neguib, he had an overarching goal of ending British presence in Egypt, enhancing the Egyptian troops, and improving the country’s economy by developing a dam at Aswan for purposes of irrigation. These reasons led to further conflicts with the British, which eventually resulted in the Suez Crisis.

Political Relationship between the USSR and Egypt

Considering that the Soviets and Egypt shared common objectives, the two nations had a healthy political relationship with each other. For instance, when the UK declined to sell firearms to Egypt, the USSR was willing to supply it with sophisticated weapons that were important in staging warfare (Moeller, 2015). This relationship between the USSR and Egypt derived fear among the European countries. Consequently, it resulted in Britain and France joining efforts in an attempt to overthrow Colonel Nasser (Yunger, 2015). The two countries believed that by overthrowing the colonel, the political relationship between Egypt and the USSR would desist since they perceived Nasser as the driving force toward the strong relationship. As a result, the Suez War took place in Egypt in 1956.

Nasser’s Influence in the Middle East

Nasser’s powerful influence in the Middle East region tended to compete with the western influence, thus posing threats to both the United States and the United Kingdom. According to the US, the primary agenda of the war was to handle the Soviets’ influence in the Middle East (Gorst & Kelly, 2013). On the other hand, the UK was striving to maintain its relevance in influencing politics in the Middle East. Additionally, the potential of the war intensified when the UK declined to trade its firearms with Egypt, after which the latter acquired them from Czechoslovakia. Since western countries faced potential competition, the need to alleviate the completion from Egypt resulted in the conflict (Henkin, 2015). The implication is that Nasser’s influence in the Middle East was one of the reasons that led to the Suez War.

The Baghdad Pact

Additionally, the Baghdad Pact in 1955 contributed significantly to the Suez Crisis in Egypt. The pact was a Cold War consensus depicting the prioritization of the Soviet Union by the US Eisenhower administration through various security agreements. Member countries that formed the pact included Britain, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, and Iraq (Donaghy, 2016). Considering that the headquarters of the pact was situated in Baghdad, it was named after this capital. The pact affiliated Iraq with the west, giving its leader potential advantage against his rivals (Egyptian President Abdel Nasser). Moreover, Gorst and Kelly (2013) affirm that one of the most powerful players from the Middle East, Nuri al-Sa’id, backed up the consensus, thus threatening Nasser’s position. Due to his perception of this pact as a consequence of Western imperialism alongside its British membership, Nasser successfully persuaded other Arab nations to reject it, and as a result, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon declined membership offers for joining the Baghdad Pact (Crowcroft, 2016). Although the US participated in various security agreements of the pact, it influenced the area without being an official member. These differences, therefore, triggered the Suez War in Egypt. As a result, the member countries of the Baghdad Pact who had conflicting interests with those of Egypt were in favor of the crisis.

The Aswan High Dam Project

Furthermore, the factors behind the construction of the Aswan High Dam were other reasons why the Suez War occurred in Egypt. Eden, the then British Prime Minister, and Eisenhower, the then American Army general, purposed to offer Egypt a loan of $70 million to channel the construction processes as they did not approve of Nasser’s policies (Yungher, 2015). Egypt had to comply with the World Bank’s terms and conditions and promise to dedicate $200 million toward the development of the same project (Dieti, 2008). The move by Eden and Eisenhower in loaning Nasser the funds for the hydro-electrical power project was triggered by the fear of the Soviets gaining significant influence in the area.

Nevertheless, internal pressures on Eden and Eisenhower and Nasser’s policy of allying with the Soviets forced the former to cancel their offer for their support in the construction of the power project. Moreover, the Egyptian leader’s propaganda dubbed “Voice of the Arabs” against the western nations brewed rivalry with the US and the UK (Hubbard, 2011). According to Smith (2016), on July 26^th 1956, Nasser announced the nationalization of the Suez Canal, citing the refusal of the US and the UK to fund the construction of the dam upon failing to meet the terms and conditions of the World Bank. He asserted that Egypt had to fund the project solely. Considering that France and the UK termed the nationalization as a breach of the international law, these conflicts subjected Egypt to the Suez War later in the same year.

The Martial Law in the Canal Zone

Upon nationalizing the Suez Canal, Nasser declared the imposition of the Martial Law in the Suez Canal region as well as taking charge of the Suez Canal Company, which was mandated with overseeing and controlling all activities carried out in the Suez Canal (Burchell, 2016). The Martial Law is a military order to control the civilian executive functions of the government in response to emergencies. Nasser used this law to govern the Suez region, and the implication was that the levies collected from the ships cruising through the region would facilitate the construction of the Aswan Dam (Adebajo, 2011). Due to the fears of Nasser blocking shipments to the European region, France and Britain resorted to plan for military action in order to reclaim the control of the Canal (Parker & Kirby, 2008). Consequently, these processes resulted in the Suez Crisis in 1956, where France and Britain collaborated with Israel to invade Egypt.

Potential Decline in Oil Supply to Europe

Considering that petroleum was increasingly becoming the main source of energy in the 1950s, the demand for it, especially by the developed nations, was significantly high. European countries such as France and Britain relied on the Suez Canal for the delivery of petroleum. In particular, over 75% of the oil used in Europe was shipped through the Suez Canal (Parker & Kirby, 2008). Nasser’s step in controlling the Canal posed significant threats to European nations that relied on oil as an important source of energy. These concerns, therefore, resulted in the Egyptian Suez War in a bid to secure their oil shipment channels.

Arab-Israeli Rivalry

Another reason that contributed to the occurrence of the Suez War was the conflict between the Arabs and Israel. In particular, the 1948 war heightened the conflicts among these nations (Parker & Kirby, 2008). Prior to the Suez Crisis, Egypt had participated in several instances of attacks on Israel and was a member of the Fedayeen group. Consequently, Israel participated in the Suez War as a form of revenge because of the wars. During that period, the Egyptian army was the strongest and most powerful in the region. It teamed up with the Arab legion that was instructed by British officers (Smith, 2016). The invasion of Israel witnessed more than 300 families deceased and several thousand others displaced. Considering that Egypt played a significant role in the Arab-Israel war, Israel sought to participate in the Suez War as a revenge mission for the historic 1948 war.

The Refugee Crisis

Owing to the 1948 Palestine war with Israel, the number of refugees, particularly from Palestine and Israel, was growing remarkably, thereby posing liability factors in Arab countries including Jordan, Egypt, and Syria (Steed, 2016). Due to the determination to get back their land, Arabs resorted to sending the refugees back to their former countries. The driving out of these refugees was ascribed to inhumane relations that fueled further conflicts within Arab nations and Israel. This refugee crisis was thus another reason why Israel engaged in the Suez War against the Egyptians.

Egyptian Support for Algerian Resistance of the French

The Algerian War of independence that lasted for eight years, starting from 1954, witnessed the Algerian National Liberation Front spearhead the rebellion of the French rule in the country. Smith (2016) asserts that the war was associated with tactics such as maquis fighting, torture, and guerrilla warfare, among others. Considering that Egypt supported the Algerian rebellion, the former entered into conflicts with France (Steed, 2016). Consequently, France contributed to the Suez Crisis due to Egypt’s partnership with Algeria aimed to resist the French rule. This factor, therefore, encouraged the Suez War in Egypt.

The Israel-France Alliance

Following shared interests between France and Israel in nuclear research, the two countries formed an alliance that was characterized by various partnerships and agreements. For instance, France offered to trade with Israel where the former would sell the latter all types of arms, upon preference (Pierre, 2014). After the acquisition of weapons from France, Israel also informed France of their intention to fight Egypt. Considering that Egypt had not yet acquired more weapons from the Soviets, Israel seized the opportunity of the Suez Crisis to wage the war against Egypt. Therefore, the Israel-France Alliance served as a factor contributing toward the Suez War in Egypt.

The British Opposition

The Egyptians organized violent opposition against the British, particularly between 1951 and 1955. During this period, the Egyptians resisted British forces, which resulted in their subsequent withdrawal from Egypt. These conflicts and wars produced significant impacts on British economy and the country lost several lives in its struggle to maintain control over Egypt (Donaghy, 2016). Additionally, efforts by Eden to facilitate the joining of Egypt to the Baghdad Pact and the cessations of anti-British broadcasts were rendered futile. For these reasons, Britain teamed up with France and Israel to fight Egypt in the Suez War.

The Rule over Sudan

Britain and Egypt signed different agreements aimed to terminate British colonial rule in Sudan by 1955. Additionally, the two nations signed treaties that were geared toward the removal of the British army from the Suez Canal (Adebajo, 2011). However, the British did not avert their rule over Sudan as agreed earlier and their troops were still intact at the Suez Canal (Verbeek, 2017). As a result, there emerged several unrests in Egypt due to the country’s loss of claim to Sudan as well as the failure of the British to honor their agreements. Although Sudan was granted independence in 1956, the brewed conflicts culminated in the Suez War later that year.

Social and Religious Differences

Social and religious relations between the Jews and the Arabs were becoming considerably constrained. The differences between the two social groups were associated with conflicting views where each affiliation was regarded as being socially superior to its counterpart. As a result, the inter-social rivalries between the two communities led to major conflicts, such as the 1948 war in Israel (Crowcroft, 2016). Moreover, considering that the Soviets often mistreated the Zionists, who comprised Jewish people, and that Egypt had a strong relationship with the USSR, this factor contributed to the conflict between Israel and Egypt (Crowcroft, 2016). Consequently, the Suez Crisis was also associated with social and religious differences between the Jews and the Arabs.

Militarism

The concept of militarism also contributed significantly to the Suez Crisis in Egypt. Militarism can be described as the dedication of a country to enhancing its military strength for use in the protection and defense of its interests. Egypt embraced militarism in protecting its interests — in this case, the Suez Canal. After Nasser announced the nationalization of the Suez, it was adopted as an Egyptian entity and thus the military was prepared to fight for it. Moreover, Nasser’s intentions to strengthen the Egyptian military were encouraged by people’s desire to have a nation that could defend itself in the times of war (Gorst & Kelly, 2013). Because of this, Nasser sought to purchase better weapons, which he sourced from the Soviets. Therefore, the urge to protect the Suez as an Egyptian property was among the reasons that contributed to the Suez War.

Shared Interests among France, Israel, and Britain

During the time of the nationalization of the Suez Canal by the Egyptian President, France, Israel, and Britain were experiencing issues with Egypt. In this case, France was in conflict with Egypt due to its support of the Algerian rebellion against the French rule. Similarly, Israel was facing security threats from Egypt, considering that Nasser had announced that he was planning an attack on Israel following the 1948 war defeat. Moreover, according to Dieti (2008), Britain had conflicts with Egypt, following the takeover of the canal and its implications for the economy. Since the three nations had issues with Egypt, they secretly organized military action against their foe, and as a result, Israel struck first and seized the control over the canal, after which Britain and France joined the war and bombed Egypt’s air force. In this respect, the shared interests among three countries facilitated the development of the Suez Crisis in Egypt.

Conclusion

The Suez Crisis that occurred in 1956 in Egypt was associated with various reasons that led to the war. For instance, nationalism in Egypt and the country’s political relationship with the Soviets resulted in the invasion of Egypt by its enemies. As discussed above, Israel, France, and the United Kingdom were the main parties that fought Egypt during that period. Among the many reasons that sparked the Suez War in Egypt, the influence of Nasser in the Middle East was one of the most significant, resulting in a perception of his tendency to compete with the western nations in influencing this particular region. As noted before, the Baghdad Pact was also a significant contributor to the Suez Crisis due to its point that provided Nasser’s rival with leverage against him, thus triggering conflicts. Additionally, the financial resources behind the construction of the Aswan High Dam resulted in its nationalization by Nasser, leading to legal concerns that fueled conflicts and the resultant Suez War. The Arab-Israeli rivalry was also a contributing factor to the war. Israel suffered great losses in the 1948 war due to Egypt, and for this reason, it attacked Egypt in 1956 during the Suez Crisis with an aim of seeking revenge. The Palestinian refugee crisis caused by the 1948 war with Israel caused problems in the Arab nation, where several Palestinian and Israeli refugees were driven out of these countries, resulting in conflicts that contributed to the crisis. The Egyptian support of the Algerian rebellion of the French rule has also been identified as a reason that led to the Suez War since the French retaliated by joining the two allies in fighting Egypt. The Israel-France alliance facilitated the supply of weapons to Israel, which enhanced the Suez Crisis. Moreover, the Egyptians’ opposition against the British from 1951 to 1955, which led to their withdrawal from Egypt, served as a contributing factor to the warfare. Moreover, the rule over Sudan and the refusal of the British to remove their troops from the Suez Base exacerbated the conflicts between the Egyptians and the British, thus leading to the war.